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Our lives are like temples that
we are building. The living building we are erecting is a spiritual
one within ourselves, an inner life. It is in this context that
I want to consider the idea of spirituality and the possibility
that there is a spiritual science.
The Idea
of Spirituality
My spiritual roots are in the Judeo-Christian theological tradition
and the Greco-Roman philosophical tradition. My spiritual guide
in keeping with these traditions has been the Scriptures: the
Torah in the Jewish tradition and the Bible in the Christian
tradition.
The idea of spirituality, as far as
I have been able to ascertain, is not found in the Bible or in
early Jewish rabbinical writing. It is an expression created
by medieval translators of the Bible to express philosophical
and scientific concepts that were Hellenic in origin.1 (Numbers
refer to references listed at the bottom of the page).
Spirituality in Western literature
means the opposite of worldliness. It refers to a special condition
of being which is immaterial, hence potentially immortal. It
is important to note here that such an idea would have been uncommon
in philosophical and theological speculations of the ancient
Jewish writers.
The idea of spirituality does occur
in later Jewish writers, who began to speculate that the nature
of man is essentially spiritual. Man is capable of experiencing
the presence of God and capable of fashioning his life in a manner
appropriate to this objective. Opinions differed widely, however,
as to precisely how life in the presence of God was to be defined
and achieved.
'Some taught that spirituality is
"the culmination of a long series of moral and religious
virtues", beginning with such "outer" virtues
as patience, modesty, discipline, and the conquest of anger.
Afterwards, one could move toward a more "esoteric"
or inner way of experiencing the divine presence, achieving perhaps
mystical union with God.
For others, the Commandments of the
Torah could be and were interpreted as directives for living
the spiritual life. While for others, such practices as contemplation
and meditation, practices which derive from prayer and liturgical
prescriptions for communal and group worship, were the path to
spiritual experience.
If we conceive the practice of contemplation
and meditation as characteristic of spiritual practice, then
the concept of spirituality could conceivably be extended to
include non-western religious traditions.
From these speculations about how
to live the spiritual life, we might generalize about the spiritual
man somewhat as follows. Most certainly he would be one who lives
conscious of the presence of God. In the Christian sense, he
would be one who loves God with his whole mind, his whole heart,
and his whole being and his neighbor as well as himself. The
proper attitude of the spiritual man would be the joyous resignation
to God's will. His life would be one devoted not only to the
love of God, but to a love that is inclusive of the whole human
family. This love would demand compassion for the oppressed and
the poor, and a willingness to serve as peacemaker within the
human community. Such a spirituality is obviously not of an otherworldly
character, but very much rooted in witnessing God's presence
in the world.
In this sense, then, the "ultimate
spiritual and parental models are Abraham and Sarah, showing
the love of God to to others and bringing them 'under the wings
of the Shekinah' (meaning Divine Presence) and thereby enriching
their own lives with God as well."2
The Study
of Spirituality
I propose the thesis that the science proper to the study of
spirituality is metaphysics. The questions about spirituality
are not simply questions whose answers are to be found in religion.
The proper religious study is theology. What is metaphysics?
Is there any such science? This, of courses is the question central
to Aristotle's Analytics.
This takes us to the speculative traditions
of Greek philosophy. the very word metaphysics is Greek in origin,
derived from the expression ta meta ta physika (literally translated
means "what comes after physics"), a very ambiguous
expression. Does it refer simply to the things that come after
the physical things in the hierarchy of being, suggesting the
possible existence of supersensible realities? Or does the expression
refer simply to several volumes of books on philosophy in which
the volume on Metaphysics was placed after the volume on Physics?
The generally accepted interpretation,
at least since medieval times, places Metaphysics as speculations
about the possibility and nature of supersensible reality.3 Setting
aside the lexical question about the origins of metaphysics,
I will continue with some speculations about the decline of metaphysical
studies in recent times.
The source of metaphysics lies in
Plato's question (in the Theatetis) about the origins of philosophy
itself. The Arabic philosopher al-Farabi assesses the significance
of the Platonic and Aristotelian philosophies as giving us an
account of philosophy and also an account of the ways to it and
the ways to re-establish it when it becomes confused or extinct.4
By suggesting that the study of spirituality
is properly an object within the scope of metaphysical speculation
is to tacitly acknowledge the validity of spirituality and metaphysics
as objects of rational analysis. This in effect takes the systematic
study of spirituality beyond the confines of theology and religion.
Heidegger, on the other hand, argued at length in his Tübingen
lecture of 1927, "Phenomenology and Theology"...
Anyone for whom the Bible is divine
revelation and truth has the answer to the question "Why
(is there something) rather than nothing?" even before it
is asked: everything that is, except God himself, has been created
by Him. One who holds to such faith can in a way participate
in the asking of our question, but he cannot really question
without ceasing to be a believer and taking all the consequences
of such a step. He will only be able to act "as if".
5
The way to metaphysical knowledge
is by way of contemplation, and for spiritual awareness the way
is the sustained contemplation of God. This is not to deny the
possibility of arriving at metaphysical knowledge, or spiritual
awareness, by way of intellectual analysis. As David said: "When
I consider Thy heavens, the work of Thy fingers -- what is man
that Thou art mindful of him?" (Ps. 8:4-5)
It would seem that the study of metaphysics
leads one to contemplate the possibility of the existence, oneness
and immateriality of God. The practice of spirituality would
instill in the student of metaphysics the cultivation of the
love of God. This would include the desire to praise Him, glorify
Him, and long with an exceeding longing to know His great Name.
The movement is from the intellect to the heart, from contemplation
and analysis to love.
As Leo Strauss so well describes in
his article on "The Mutual Influence of Theology and Philosophy"...
When we attempt to return to the roots
of Western civilization, we observe soon that Western civilization
has two roots which are in conflict with each other, the Biblical
and the Greek philosophic, and this is to begin with a very disconcerting
observation. Yet this realization has also something reassuring
and comforting. The very life of Western civilization is the
life between two codes, a fundamental tension. There is therefore
no reason inherent in Western civilization itself, in its fundamental
constitution, why it should give up life. But this comforting
thought is justified only if we live that life, if we live that
conflict, that is. No one can be both a philosopher and a theologian,
or, for that matter, a third which is beyond the conflict between
philosophy and theology, or a synthesis of both. But every one
of us can be and ought to be either the one or the other, the
philosopher open to the challenge of theology or the theologian
open to the challenge of philosophy.6
The existence or possibility of a
spiritual life, then, is the question of Athens and Jerusalem
itself. There is no shame in not knowing the answer to this question.
After all, for the unexamined life that fails or refuses to ask
it, there is little else.
Spiritual
Powers
The spiritual state may be considered a special state of consciousness
which awakens special spiritual powers. This is a viewpoint not
uncommon in Western and Eastern forms of mysticism. Whether these
powers are supernatural gifts of grace or natural abilities that
can be nurtured by certain practices is a moot point. These special
powers have been attributed to gurus, saints, the Jewish prophets,
and others from time immemorial. They are thought to be the object
of the study of Yoga, Zen, Christian Asceticism, and other similar
practices.
Central among these spiritual powers
is the prophetic spirit, or clairvoyance, which enables one to
discern in advance an event or human encounter in the continuum
of time and space. This same spirit may enable one to illuminate
a text of Scripture, or inspire one to create a work of art,
or in some cases to perform supernatural feats.
The spiritual power of prophecy was
attributed to forty-eight men and seven women of the Bible and
was believed to be abundant in Israel before the disappearance
of Elijah.7 In this spirit Adam is supplied with the names of
the creatures God has created. Jacob is enlightened as to the
future of his sons. David and Solomon are inspired to compose
the books of Psalms and Ecclesiastes.
The Biblical prophet, as representative
of one who lives a spiritual life, is not representative of all
spirituality. He is pictured in the Scriptural accounts as often
caught between the fire of his divine mission and his love for
his people. He tries to comfort the people in times of tragedy
and despair with messianic visions of better days to come.
Non-biblical descriptions of the spiritual
life are less dramatic. There is no radical reordering of one's
life, no compelling vocation to speak the word of the Lord. Instead,
there is merely an experience of illumination, a feeling of exaltation.
It places no obligation on one to perform extraordinary feats
or live an extraordinarily exemplary life. It principally enables
one to extend goodness and righteousness in the community.
Spiritual reading is one behavior
which characterizes the spiritual person. The spiritual person
is also characterized as one who performs deeds of loving-kindness,
is joyful of heart, works for the greater honor of God, and sacrifices
personal advantage for the good of the community.
The Soul
In furthering the idea of spirituality and the idea of special
spiritual powers associated with the spiritual state, it is essential
to consider the possibility that man is more than his body. If
man is more than his body, what is he? One may answer, he is
a living soul evolving or advancing in consciousness. This is
quite different from the concept of man as a psychophysical unity,
with the soul being merely the unifying principle. This would
subordinate the soul to time and nature, existing within the
confines of physical reality alone. The other idea, developed
under the influence of Greek philosophy, regards the soul as
a metaphysical entity, ascribing to it metaphysical existence,
thus immortal in nature and capable of transcending space and
time.
In this view, man is not fundamentally
a creation of the natural world, whose essential being is corporeal,
but a creature whose source is divine. The temporal and spatial
distinctions governing nature do not entirely apply to man. The
soul's existence does not depend upon its physical expression.
It existed before the body and will remain after it. Putting
man's essential being in the supernatural order means that the
laws governing the soul are neither physical nor rational, but
metaphysical.
The idea of the soul is itself a metaphysical
concept which cannot be understood apart from its divine origin,
or the concept of spirit, a spirit which is by definition eternal,
omnipresent, omnipotent, and omniscient. The soul, then, is an
individual expression of that spirit.
In Biblical terms, man was created
"in the image of God". What is it that was created
in the image of God? What is it that was created capable of partaking
of the divine, representing an order of existence transcending
time and the nature? This could not conceivably be an attribute
of the body. It would have to some inner principle such as the
soul.
The concept of soul is essentially
metaphysical. It portrays man's existence as having meaning only
in relation to God. As man develops his metaphysical essence,
he distances himself further and further from his physical, material
substance.
The guarantee of his capacity to attain
the realm of the spirit is to be found in the internal structure
of his soul, which ascends level by level from the material to
the spiritual. If man is created in the divine image and so has
a fundamental relationship to God and an innate ability to serve
Him, it is by virtue of the structure and elements of his soul,
which reflect the divine reality and endow him with the capacity
to conceive of God.8
The idea that man's essence is directed
toward the spiritual dimension of existence is bound up with
the concept of perfection. Man does not belong simply to the
natural order, which is complete in itself. Rather, man is destined
for perfection in a realm transcending that order. The notion
of perfection not only shapes the purpose of man, but relates
him as a supernatural rather than natural being. As we are told:
Be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly Father is perfect (Mat.
5:48). The scriptures teach man the various ways in which his
supernatural purpose can be realized. It is the point of contact
between man and his metaphysical aspect. It determines his spiritual
fate in that far-distant land from which he shall never return.
However, let us not assume that the
Bible explicitly conceptualizes the soul as a metaphysical entity.
More in keeping with the early interpretations of the Torah is
the idea of the soul as part of the psychophysical unity of man,
an entity composed of body and a soul. The Torah is dominated
by a monistic view that ascribes no metaphysical significance
to human existence. Soul is simply that element that imparts
feelings and desires, physical as well as spiritual. It is also
the site of a spiritual life separate from that of the body.
This would be the concept of man as a "living soul",
or a psychophysical organism created in the image of God. Yet,
it is this very concept of man having been created in the image
of God that allowed for the post-biblical thought of the soul
as a metaphysical entity. This concept seems to be more influenced
by Greek thought than by rabbinical teachings. 9
The Greek view of the soul as belonging
to the realm of the divine, the infinite, and the eternal, and
the body confined to the realm of the material, finite, and mortal
no doubt distinguishes both Jewish thought and Christian doctrine.
This dualistic conception of man, in which body and soul are
in opposition to each other, has religious as well as metaphysical
implications. The religious ideal of liberating the soul from
the bonds of the physical, thereby enhancing spiritual purity,
we are told, was entirely foreign to biblical Judaism, but highly
developed in medieval thought.10
Later Cabalistic teachers describe
the spiritual structure of man as making him capable of affecting
and being affected by all reality on every level of existence.
It is such thinking that leads one eventually to consider the
mystical significance of the doctrine of the soul, mysticism
being the contemplation and experience of union with the divine.
I will end this article by acknowledging
that this is but an introduction to a fascinating and exceedingly
no less controversial subject such as any treatise on the nature
of man and the purpose of life would be.
The Buddhist tradition has much to
teach us about the issues discussed in this article. Thomas Merton
towards the end of his life went East in search of some answers
to these questions, much to the chagrin of his religious superiors.
We have only alluded the Cabalistic and the Jewish mystical traditions,
about which I know next to nothing. These might be sources of
considerable enlightenment.
There is also another tangential subject:
the concept of consciousness, especially cosmic consciousness.
Other related questions need to be addressed within a treatise
on spirituality, like spiritual healing, the reality of psychic
phenomena, reincarnation, astral projection, and spiritualism
to mention a few.
References
1. Arthur Green, "Spirituality" in Contemporary
Jewish Religious Thought. Original Essays on Critical Concepts,
Movements, and Beliefs, edited by A.A. Cohen and P. Mendes-Flohr,
p. 904.
2. Arthur Green, "Spirituality" in Contemporary
Jewish Religious Thought. Original Essays on Critical Concepts,
Movements, and Beliefs, edited by A.A. Cohen and P. Mendes-Flohr,
p. 906.
3. Joseph Owens, 1963, An Elementary Christian Metaphysics.
Note: an opposing view was argued by Johann Gottlieb Buhle in
1788.
4. Al-Farabi's Philosophy of Plato and Aristotle (1962), as quoted
by Alan Udoff's chapter on "Metaphysics" in A. A. Cohen
and P. Mendes-Flohr, op.cit., pp. 603-611.
5. Martin Heidegger, 1959, An Introduction to Metaphysics.
6. Cohen and Mendes-Flohr, op. cit., p. 609.
7. For this information I am indebted to Aaron Singer's chapter,
"Holy Spirit," in Cohen and Mendes-Flohr, op.cit.,
p. 410.
8. Rachel Elior, "Soul," in Cohen and Mendes-Flohr,
op.cit., p. 888.
9. Reference for this text is Rachel Elior, "Soul,"
in Cohen and Mendes-Flohr, op.cit., p. 890.
10. Elior claims in addition that this thinking became part of
Kabalistic thought.
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